
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

%p* ^q«Pixt. 



[ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 




ZWICKER S 

INSTRUCTOR 



FOR PROCURING 



STATIONARY 



Steam Engineers License, 



'^^ . 



0,^'" 



4" Philip Henry Zwicker, 



PRACTICAL ENGINEER AND MACHINIST. 



ST. LOUIS, MO. -y j,Z cl 

1887. ^--^-^-_^ 




ZWICKKR S 

INSTRUCTOR 



FOR PROCURING 



STATIONARY 



Steam Engineers License, 



^',,^ 



^ Philip Henry Zwicker, 



PRACTICAL ENGINEER AND MACHINIST. 



ST. LOUIS, MO. Xl^J^^^lh 

1887. 







^ri- 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, 

By Philip Henry Zwicker, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 

All xights of Translation reserved. 



(^ 






Y 



/ 



PRESS OF 

Sander & Eiermann, 413 Franklin Avenue, 
st. louis, mo. 



The intention of this book, is to give 
correct and straightforward answers to all 
the legal questions, that any board of sta 
tionery Engineers may ask a candidate 
when undergoing examination for procur- 
ing Engineer's License ; chosen with the 
view of saving the reader a long and tire- 
some search through numerous volumes 
after some point, and enabling him to get 
directly at the information desired, as 
special efforts have been made toward 
giving the information of such practical 
utility. Steam may be managed by a 
common sense rule, but if the laws which 
regulate its use are violated, it will make 
things very unpleasant. 

No one is to blame for not being well in- 
formed on subjects of which he did not 
know where to obtain information ; but, 
when once informed where it can be pro- 
cured, if he fails to avail himself of the 
opportunity of so doing he deserves no 
sympathy. Hints and examples are also 



given, intending to show how a great many 
practical improvements can be made by 
Engineers, Firemen and Owners of steam 
engines and boilers. 

The importance of this book, is, to 
keep Engineers informed of their duty in 
regard to the Safety Valve, Engine, Boiler 
and Pump. With this book and what ex- 
perience a man has, he can become a good 
Engineer. A man of plain education, 
studying this book, will find that it is sim- 
ple and easily learned ; also the only book 
explaining these things plainly. 

Engineers should inform themselves 
of the safe working pressure of the Boil- 
ers in their charge, by calculating from 
the thinnest part of the shell. By the in- 
formation to be derived from this book, a 
man can educate himself to become an 
Engineer without loosing any time learn- 
ing the trade. 

That this work may serve as a trust- 
worthy instructor to the candidate, will 
be observed in the following questions and 
answers. 

Philip H. Zwicker, 

Author. 



ZWICKER'S 

Questions and Answers 

— FOR— 

MACHINISTS, FIREMEN AND YOUNG ENGINEERS. 



Question. Are you a Mechanic ? 

Answer. Yes or No. 

Q. Have you worked at finishing ? 

A. Yes or No. 

Q. What kind of Boilers are there ? 

A. There are different makes ; such as 
Flue, Tubular, Hanging-fire box, Upright, 
Cylinder and various other kinds, but 
the above named are most in use. 

Q. What is a boiler made of and how 
composed ? 

A. A steam boiler is made out of steel 
or iron plates, the most in use is H and 
K inch charcoal iron 66,000 lbs. tensile 
strenght ; these plates are run through a 



rolling machine and rolled in a circle, then 
rivited together with two rows of rivets, 
because the strain is greater sidewise 
than endwise, the seams around the boil- 
er are single riveted because the strain is 
not so great ; the boiler is braced by dif- 
ferent makes of braces, sush as crow foot, 
longitudinal braces, dome braces, side 
braces, etc. The eye is riveted to the head 
of the boiler, which head is generally 
made of >^ in. plates, the other eye is rivet- 
ed to the side, top or dome of boiler ; and 
they are put together by bolts with a split 
key to keep the bolt in place. 

Q. How should a brace fit ? 

A. It should fit tight, for if it were loose 
it would be of no account. 

Q. If you found a brace loose, what 
would you do and how would you tighten 
it? 

A. By taking the brace out, heat it in 
the center, then upset it by jumping it 
endwise on a block of wood until it is the 
proper length. 

Q. Why is a boiler braced ? 

A. For strength. 



Q. What are Stay-bolts ? 

A. A Stay-bolt is a screw bolt, put 
through an outside and into an inside sheet 
so as to hold them, that they may not 
spread or collapse, such as a tire-box 
sheet and an outside shell, they are put 
together with stay-bolts so as to allow 
a water space between the two sheets. 

Q. How is a stay-bolt made and put in ? 

A. They are made with one contiuous 
thread and screwed through the outside, 
then through the space between, then 
through the fire-box sheet and allowed to 
stick through A- in. so they can be riveted 
over each end so as to act as a brace, the 
space between the two sheets is called a 
water space. 

Q. What is meant by corrosion ? 

A. It means wasting away of the iron 
of boiler plates by pitting, grooving, etc. 
There is internal and external corrosion ; 
the acids and minerals in the water liber- 
ated by the heat, attack the boiler inter- 
nally, and the sulpher which comes out of 
the coal has a strong attachment for the 
iron, and that attacks the outside. 



Q. How would you find the water level 
when your boiler is foaming ? 

A. The proper way would be to shut 
down the engine and all valves connec- 
ted with the boiler, cover fire with ashes, 
close the damper, then the water will 
quiet down, and the level of the water can 
be easily found. An engineer should 
know when lighting a fresh fire, never to 
force it, but let it heat gradually, so that 
all parts expand as near equal as possible; 
good judgement is needed. Boilers and 
steam-guages should be tested at least 
once a year. 

Q. If you should take a wrench, and 
screw up a nut on a stud in a boiler, steam- 
chest, cylinder, or anywhere where steam 
may blow out, or should happen to break 
out, what would you do ? 

A. Simply make a hard wood plug and 
drive it in with a heavy hammer, leave it 
in until I could shut down and then repair it. 

Q. What is the best way to clean a 
glass guage inside ? 

A. The best way, is to take a small 
piece of waste, and tie it to a strong thin 



9 

piece of stick and saturate the waste with 
soap or acetic acid, and pass down inside 
of tube, then blow through with steam, and 
the glass will be clean as new. Never 
touch the inside of a glass water guage 
with wire, if you do, it will crack. The 
best glasses are the Scotch brand, called 
Eureka. 

Q. What clearance should a boiler 
have ? 

A. It should have about 4 or 5 in. all 
around from fire-line to fire-line, between 
the shell and bridge walls ; and a boiler 
should have from 2 to 3 bridge walls so 
the fire and heat will hug the boiler; it 
also makes the coal burn cleaner and 
steams easier. The first bridge wall should 
be on the back end of the grate bars, and 
the others about 3 to 5 feet apart, according 
to the length of the boiler. Where the 
smoke returns through the flues, it should 
have about 1 or 1% feet clearance. The 
bridge wall should lean toward the back. 

Q. How should a boiler rest and what 
on ? 

A. The front end of the boiler should 



10 

rest on the fire front and the back end 
generally rests on a cast iron leg or two 
rollers to allow the boiler to expand equal- 
ly. The mud drum should always hang 
free under all circumstances. Engineers 
should be careful in starting or stopping 
an engine with a high pressure of steam, 
because the rent in giving the steam in 
starting, and the sudden check in stop- 
ping, may cause such a pressure as to rup- 
ture the boiler. Engineers should see that 
their draft is not choked by ashes under 
the boiler, and that the outside of the 
boiler and inside of flues are kept clean, 
then they will have no trouble in keeping 
up steam. 

Q. In case the throttle valve should get 
loose from the stem and prevent the steam 
from entering the valve chest, what would 
you do ? 

A, Close the valve next to the boiler, if 
there was one ; if not, let the boiler cool 
down, then take the valve out and repair it. 

Q. What different strains has a boiler? 

A. To the flues or tubes, it has a crush- 
ing strain, to the shell a tearing strain. 



— 11 — 

Q. What causes boiler explosions ? 

A. There are various causes ; such as 
low water, high pressure of steam, bad 
safety valve, foaming boilers and burnt 
sheets. 

Q. Why would a foaming boiler cause 
an explosion ? 

A. It generally raises the water from 
the heated sheets, they become hot, the 
water falling back on them they crack and 
sometimes cause an explosion, a blistered 
sheet or a scaly boiler will also cause ex- 
plosion by allowing the sheets to become 
burnt and weakened ; also an untrue steam 
guage is very bad. 

Q. What are the worst explosions ? 

A. The worst explosions are caused by 
high pressure and plenty of water; low 
water allows the iron to burn and crack, 
which weakens it, and when the cold water 
touches it, it does not take so much to 
burst. 

Q. How would you know if your boiler 
had blistered sheets or was rotten ? 

A. By the hammer test ; by taking a 
small hammer and going inside and out- 



12 

side of the boiler and seeing if it is all 
right by sounding it. 

Q. How would you know by sounds ? 

A. By the different sounds it has ; if it 
rings and sounds solid it is all right, but 
if it sounds dead, hollow or blunt there is 
something wrong. 

Q. Would you strike the iron hard ? 

A. Yes, pretty hard. 

Q. If you wanted to put a patch on a 
boiler, what kind would you put on, and 
which is the best, a hard or soft patch ? 

A. The hard patch; it is the most reli- 
able and safest. 

Q. Why not put on a soft patch ? 

A. Because they are not reliable and 
are dangerous. 

Q. What is the difference between a 
hard and soft patch ? 

A. A hard patch is a patch where the 
piece is cut out of the boiler and rivet holes 
are drilled or punched through, then the 
patch is riveted on, chipped, corked and 
made water and steam tight. 

Q. What is a soft patch ? 

A. A soft patch is put over the plate 



18 

that needs patching, and put on with ys or 
H in. countersunk screw bolts and a mix- 
ture of red lead and iron borings to put 
between the patch and boiler ; the piece 
of sheet in boiler is not cut out for a soft 
patch as in a hard patch, consequently the 
patch is burnt, as the water in the boiler 
can not come in contact with the patch. 

Q. What is the best, drilled or punched 
holes? 

A. Drilled holes are the best. 

Q. Why ? — A. Because the fiber of the 
iron is not disturbed as in punching ; in 
drilling, the iron is cut out regular, in 
punching, it is forced out at once. 

Q. What should be the proper rivets for 
certain sized sheets, and how far apart ? 

A. The rivets should be Vs and H in.^ 
and VA to Va in. apart. 

Q. Before shutting down at night, what 
would you do ? 

A. Pull out the fire, pump up to the 
third guage and close the glass guage cocks^ 
so in case the glass should happen to get 
broken during the night, the water would 
not escape. 



14 

I 

Q. ' What would you do the first thing i 
in the morning on entering the fire-room. 

A. See how much water was in the boil- i 

er by trying the guage cocks, and open the \ 
glass guage valves, then start the fire to 

raise steam. ; 

Q. Why do you try the guage cocks, ; 
and not trust to the glass guage ? 

A. Because the water pipe connecting , 

the glass guage with the boiler is liable to \ 

become stopped up with mud, consequent- ; 

ly the glass would not show a true level of ] 
water. The glass guage should be blown * ' 

out five or six times a day to insure safety, j 
but never depend on the glass alone. 

Q. If you found too much water in the ^ 
boiler during the day, what would you do ? 

A. Open the blow-ofi* valve and let out I 

water to the second guage. An engineer , 

should be very careful when blowing out ; 

water, when he has a hot fire in the boiler ' 

furnace, as the water leaves very fast and • 
may blow out too much ; good judgement 

should be used. \ 

Q. How would you clean the flues or 

tubes of a boiler. \ 



15 

A. By either blowing steam tlirough 
them or using a flue cleaning brush. 

Q. How are flues or tubes cleaned with 
steam i 

A. Some boilers have an inch and a 
half pipe with a valve attached, also branch 
pipes of smaller dimensions, leading from 
the IK in. into the back end and into the 
flues ; others have a hose attached to the 
front end leading ft'om the steam drum, 
so flues or tubes can be blown out from 
front end. Cleaning by brush is best. 

Q. How often would you clean out the 
flues, and when ( 

A. Once a day, and in the afternoon. 
Sometimes in the morning after raising 
steam. 

Q. How would you clean a boiler ? 

A. Let out all the water through the 
blow-oif valve, then take out man-head, 
hand-hole and mud-drum heads, then take 
a short handle broom, a candle or torch, 
small hand pick, a scraper made out of an 
old file flattened on the end and bent to 
suit, and a half inch square iron twisted 
link chain, .about 3 feet long, with a ring 



16 

at each end to answer for a handle, place 
chain around the flue and work the chain 
to get the scale off the bottom of the flues, 
use the pick and scraper to pick and scrape 
off all that can be seen on top of flues, and 
the bottom and sides of shell ; then wash 
out into the mud-drum, clean out and put in 
the mud-drum and hand-hole heads, fill up 
to top of flues, then put in man-hole plate, 
and till up to second guage ready for rais- 
ing steam. 

Q. Could a boiler not be blown out ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. How much pressure would you al- 
low? A. About 20 or 30 lbs. 
Q. Why not more pressure ? 
A. Because the heat would be so great 
that the expansion and contraction would 
not be equal, consequently the boiler seams 
would probably leak and the boiler be 
injured. 

Q. What benefit is gained by letting 
water stay in the boiler until you are ready 
to clean out ? 

A. The mud is kept soft and the scale 
is not caked to the bottom, also the seams 



17 

and boiler are not injured by unequal ex- 
j)ansion and contraction. 

Q. How should a man-head and hand- 
hole head be taken out and put in ? 

A. They should be marked with a chisel 
at the top, also the boiler at man-hole and 
hand-hole, which ever it might be and they 
should be put in the same way they came 
out. 

Q. How would you gasket man-hole or 
hand-hole heads ? 

A. With pure lead rings ; some use 
sheet rubber. 

Q Why are man-hole and hand-hole 
heads made oblong instead of round ? 

A Because if they were round, they 
could not be taken out and a man could 
not enter the boiler. 

Q. When filling a boiler with cold wa- 
ter and raising steam, what should be 
done ? — A. A valve should be left open. 

Q. Why? — A. Because a boiler tills 
easier and quicker, and in raising steam 
the cold air is let out, which allows equal 
expansion, as cold air will not allow equal 
expansion. 



18 

Q. How would you set a boiler ? 

A. By using a spirit level across the 
flues, and along the flues, and allow the 
end furthest from the gauge cocks Y^ in. 
lower for every 10 feet. 

Q. Why ? — A. Because when there is 
water in the gauge cocks, there will surely 
be water in the other end. 

Q. How many gauge cocks has a boiler? 

A. Generally three. 

Q. Where is the first ? 

A. Two inches above the flues and the 
rest 2 in. apart. 

Q. Where is the water line ? 

A. Second gauge. 

Q. Where would you carry water when 
running ? — A. Second gauge. 

Q. Where would you carry water when 
shutting down at night ? — A. Third gauge. 

Q. Why ? — A. To allow for evapora- 
tion, leakage and condensation. 

Q. Where is the fire line of a boiler ? 

A. Two-thirds the circumference. 

Q. When you open a boiler and look 
in, where do the scales lay thickest ? 

A. Over the fire plates and around the 



19 

mud-drum leg or blow-off pipe. Q. Why? 

A. Because the circulation and heat is 
greatest there. 

Q. What is a steam drum for ? 

A. To have more volume and dryer 
steam. 

Q. Which is the hottest, steam or water? 

A. They are the same, only water will 
retain the heat longer, as water is a body 
and steam a vapor. The circulation and 
feed should be continual if possible. 

Q. Why ? — A. Because boilers have 
exploded just as the steam valve was op- 
ened to start the engine, after having stood 
still for some time. This is generally 
caused by the plates that are in contact 
with the fire becoming overheated, as the 
circulation being stopped after the steam 
is shut off. And just as soon as the valve 
is opened the pressure becomes lessened, 
and the water on the overheated sheets 
flash into steam of geeat elastic foece, 
and if the boiler is not strong enough, an 
explosion is the result. 

Q. If you tried the gauge cocks, and 
found no water in sight, what would you do? 



20 

A. Simply put wet ashes over the fire 
and pull it out, raise flue caps and let the 
boiler cool down. 

Q. Why do you throw wet ashes over 
the fire before pulling it out ? 

A. If the fire was stirred up it would 
create more heat and be liable to burn 
the plates. 

The braces in the boiler shold be exam- 
ined to see if they are loose, also the sheets, 
flues, heads and seams, to see if they are 
cracked or leaking ; if they are not attend- 
ed to, they may cause trouble and loss of 
life and limb. Engineers should not allow 
anything about the engine or boiler room 
to become greasy or dirty, for it show^s 
poor management, a careless and worth- 
less engineer. If valves or cocks leak, 
they should be ground in with Emery and 
Oil until a seat or true bearing is found. 

Q. When should the boiler seams be 
corked ? 

A. When the boiler is empty and cold, 
for when the boiler is hot and filled with 
water, the jarring while corking would have 
a tendency to spring aleak somewhere else. 



21 

Q. Would you call pressure and weight 
the same ? A. No. 

Q. Why? — A. Because pressure for- 
ces in every direction, while weight pres- 
ses down. 

Q. Which is best, riveted or rolled 
flues ? 

A. Kolled flues, as they are a true cir- 
cle and not so easih^ collapsed as riveted 
flues. Q. Why? 

A. Because the riveted flues are not a 
true circle. 

Q. What is foaming ? 

A. Foaming is water and steam mixed 
together. 

Q. What causes foaming ? 

A. Dirty, greasy, oily and soapy water, 
also salt water forced into fresh water 
will cause foaming. 

Q. What is priming ? 

A. Priming is the lifting of water with 
steam, such as opening a valve suddenly, 
and drawing water from the boiler to the 
cylinder of the engine. 

Q. What would you do in that case ? 

A. Close the throttle valve and leave it 



22 

closed for a few minutes, then open slow- 
ly, that will remedy it. Sometimes prim- 
ing is caused by too much water in the 
boiler, and not enough steam room, in this 
case carry a little less water. 

Q. Are boilers sometimes injured by 
hydraulic test ? 

A. Yes, if tested by an inexperienced 
person. Hydraulic test is the safest, be- 
cause if the boiler is bursted no one is 
likely to get hurt. 

Q. If you had a high pressure of steam, 
and water was out of sight, would you 
raise the safety valve to let off pressure? 

A. No. Q. Why? 

A. Because it would cause the water to 
rise, and when the valve closed the water 
would drop on the heated parts and be li- 
able to cause an explosion. 

Q. What kind of a steam gauge have 
you got ? A. A spring gauge. 

Q. What is a steam gauge for ? 

A. To indicate the pressure in pounds 
per square inch in the boiler. 

Q. Does the steam gauge get out of 
order ? A. Yes. 



28 

Q. If the steam gauge was out of order 
what would you be governed by ? 

A. By the safety valve. 

Q. How would you know that it was in 
order ? 

A. By raising the lever two or three 
times to see that the valve is not stuck. 

Q. What is a safety valve for ? 

A. It is intended to release the boiler 
from overpressure and prevent explosions. 

Q. Is there any other way to tell, if you 
had no steam gauge ? 

A. Yes, by the thermometer. 

Q. How would you do that ? 

A. By taking a large mouthed bottle, 
or anything else that will hold the ther- 
mometer, then hold it under a valve or 
gauge cock near the boiler, and let steam 
pass over it and it will indicate pressure ; 
if it shows 212^ it is 15 lbs. pressure, if 
228^ it is 20 lbs., if 269^ it is 40 lbs., if 
295 ^ it is 60 lbs. etc. 

Q. If your boiler was too small to keep 
up the amount of steam required, would 
you weigh down the safety valve to carry 
a higher pressure ? A. No. 



24 

Q. Why? A. Because that would 
show carelessness, and a violation of the 
laws. 

Note. — Engineers should know that a 
counter-sunk rivet is not as good as a flush- 
head of the same diameter and space apart 
because it has not the same strength. 




PUMPS. 

Q. What kind of pumps are there ? 

A. There are many kinds, but we con- 
sider only single action and double action 
for feeding boilers. 

Q. How many valves has a single ac- 
tion plunger pump ? 

A. Two valves, a receiving and a dis- 
charge. 

Q. How many valves has a double ac- 
tion ? 

A. Four, two receiving and two dis- 
charging. The double action receives and 
discharges both ways. This kind of pump 
has a steam cylinder on one end. 

Q. How would you set up and level a 
pump ? 

A. Set the pump so the receiving is 
from the boiler and the discharge towards 
the boiler, put in the same size receiving 
and discharge pipe as tapped in the pump. 



26 

so the pump can have a gpod supply, and 
a regular discharge. The pump is leveled 
with a spirit level or a square and plumb 
line. To level a double action pump, some 
level across the frame and along the piston; 
the other way is to take the valve cham- 
ber cap off of the water cylinder, and level 
the valve seats, so the valves will raise 
and drop plumb. To level a single action 
pump, take off the valve chamber caps 
and level both ways. 

Q. How is the water piston packed and 
with what ? 

A. It is generally packed with square 
canvass and rubber mixed packing, it 
generally takes two pieces, one piece is 
jointed on top, and the other on the bot- 
tom to make what engineers call a broken 
joint. The packing runs from X to J^ in. 
square. These are the general sizes used 
for common sized pumps. 

Q. What other valve has a pump near 
the boiler ? 

A. A check valve. 

Q. What is a check valve for? 

A. To check the pressure, and keep the 



27 

water in the boiler from coming back, in 
case there is any work to be done on the 
pump. 

Q. Could yon pnmp water into the boil- 
er, if you had 4 or 5 check valves on the 
discharge pipe ? 

A. Yes, I could force through. all, but 
it would be more labor on the pump, be- 
cause the plunger would have to force 
harder to raise the number of check valves. 

Q. Where is a pet cock put on pump 
barrel and what for ? 

A. It is put at the side and near the 
bottom of pump barrel, and is there to 
show how the pump is working, and to 
drain pump barrel in winter to keep from 
freezing. 

Q. How do you know when your pump 
is in good working order ? 

A. By opening pet cock and seeing the 
stream that comes out. 

Q. How does it show when in good 
working order? 

A. Nothing on the up stroke and full 
force on the down stroke. 

Q. Where would you locate the trouble 



28 

if it came full force both ways? 

A. I would locate it at check and dis- 
charge valves both being caught up. 

Q. Where would you locate the trouble 
if it came full force, moderate, tank or 
hydrant pressure ? 

A. At receiving valve. 

Q. Can you run a pump without a 
check valve? 

A. If my discharge valve is in good or- 
der I can, but if I have neither check or 
discharge, I cannot. 

Q. Can you feed a boiler without a 
pump at all ? 

A. If the pressure of boiler is below the 
pressure of the feed water or city pressure, 
I can, by simply opening a valve and let- 
ting in the amount of water needed. 

Q. What other ways is a boiler fed ? 

A. By an injector and inspirator. 

Q. Must a pump have a valve ? 

A. Yes, if a pump had no valve it 
would not do any work. 

A pump is not a pump unless it has a 
valve. There are common well hand pumps 
with one valve, called a receiving or suction 



29 

valve, but a force pump has two valves, a 
receiving and discharge, the discharge is 
to retain the water after it is delivered, so 
the plunger can get a fresh supply. After 
the plunger has ascended and begins to 
decend the water sets on top of the receiv- 
ing and under the discharge, consequent- 
ly when the plunger decends it forces the 
receiving shut and the discharge open. 

Q. Should there not be another valve 
near the boiler ? 

A. Yes, a globe valve between the check 
valve and boiler. 

Q. What is that for ? 

A. To close and keep pressure in the 
boiler in case the check valve is caught 
up and needs repairing. 

Q. Can you raise, lift or suck hot wa- 
ter with a pump ? 

A. ]N"ot very well. Q. Why ? 

A. Because the pump would get steam 
bound. Hot water should be level or high 
er than the pump to have pump working 
well. 

Q. Where should a pet cock be put on 
pump barrel for hot water ? 



30 

A. At the top of barrel, immediately 
under the packing ring. 

Q. Why is it put there ? 

A. To let out steam when steam bonnd 
and air when air bound. There shonld be 
a pet cock on each cap of valve box to let 
off steam or air when steam or air bound. 

Q. If yon had no pet cock on valve 
boxes what would you do ? 

A. I would take a wrench and loosen 
one of the nuts a little until the air or 
steam was out, then tighten again. 

Q. Why is an air chamber put on a 
double action pump ? 

A. It is simply a copper vessel air tight. 
When the pump is working, the water goes 
up into the chamber, compresses the air 
and the air acts as a cushion on the valves 
and piston head in the water cylinder. 

Q. What is a cushion ? 

A. A cushion is anything that is com- 
pressed, and by its compression is formed 
into a higher and stronger pressure, con- 
sequently acting as a spring, deadening 
any knock that might have occurred other- 
wise, as water will cause a knock, it being 



31 

nearly as solid as iron, so if a double action 
pump had no air chamber, there would be 
a continued thumping noise. 

Q. What is a vacuum ? 

A. A vacuum is an empty space con- 
taining nothing. 

Q. Can a perfect vacuum be formed ? 

A. No about 11 to 13 per cent of the 
atmosphere, which is 14.7 lbs. per square 
inch. 

Q. What will a vacuum do ? 

A. It will lift water 33 feet, providing 
all pipes and connections are air tight. 

Q. How is a vacuum created or made ? 

A. When the plunger of a pump is well 
packed and it lifts, it excludes the air out 
of the pump barrel and suction pipe, con- 
sequently the water being at the other end 
of pipe it follows the plunger ; or in other 
wordSa the atmospheric pressure being 14.7 
lbs. per square inch, forces the water up 
the pipe to fill the vacancy made by plung- 
er forming the vacuum. 

Q. What should be placed at the bot- 
tom of the suction pipe ? 

A. A strainer made out of gauze wire, 



32 

afoot valve and a pet cock to drain it. 

Q. If your pnmp should not be work- 
ing, yonr water running low and you. was 
asked to run a little while longer, would 
you run and let your water become dan- 
gerously low 'i 

A. ]N"o, take no chances whatever, but 
shut down and go about repairing the 
trouble. 

Q. Where would you look for the 
trouble ? 

A. Open pet cock of the pump and that 
would very nearly tell wheret o look for it, 
if no Avater came out, the water is shut off 
or there is none. 

Q. What generally prevents a pump 
from working ? 

A. Not enough water, too small a suc- 
tion pipe and obstructions of the valves to 
seat, by straws, sticks or anything that may 
be drawn through the suction pipe, or the 
pump valves becoming hot and sticking. 

Q. If an accident happened, such as a 
broken pipe connected with the boiler and 
pump, or you could not get sufficient water 
to supply the boiler, what would you do ? 



33 

A. Simply sliut down the engine, and 
all valves connected with the boiler, draw 
fire, raise flue caps, and close the damper 
so as to keep water in the boiler, until the 
difficulty is repaired. 

Q. If your suction pipe should spring a 
leak what would you do ? 

A. Take a piece of sheet rubber, some 
copper wire, wrap around tight and stop 
the leak temporarily. 

Q. If your hydrant, that supplies pump 
with water, should happen to get broken, 
what w^ould you do ? 

A. iPirst see how much water was in 
the boiler, by trying gauge-cocks, then shut 
oifin the street or wherever the lazy cocks 
lay and try to wrap it, if possible, or re- 
pair it. If an injector or inspirator was at- 
tached, and was supplied from a tank or 
well, use them. 

Q. For instance, if you had neither of 
these, what would you do ? 

A. Shut down the engine, close the 
damper, raise the flue caps and draw fire, 
whichever suited the circumstances. 

Q. If your pump was turned around.. 



34^ 

could you feed the boiler ? A. No. 

Q. What would be the consequence ? 

A. If the packing in the pump held out, 
the plunger would exclude the air and col- 
lapse the discharge pipe. 

Q. Would it not have a tendency to 
drain the water out of the boiler ? 

A. No, the check valve near the boiler 
would keep it back. 

Q. If you had no check valve what 
would it do ? 

A. The water would run out, that is, 
providing the pump was turned around. 

Q. If the pump plunger is V^ the stroke 
of the engine, what should the diameter be? 

A. Vi the diameter of engine cylinder. 

Q. How high should a valve lift to clear 
itself? 

A. About X its diameter or Vz its area. 

Q. What proportions should the valves 
be to any sized pump ? 

A. They shoud be X the area of the 
pump. 

Q. Where would you put a s team gauge? 

A. Sometimes on top of the boiler, and 
in some cases on the steam drum. It must 



35 =- 

always be tapped into the steam part of 
the boiler, the shorter the pipe the better. 
The steam gauge and safety valve should 
correspond. 

Q. What is a pet-cock put under the 
steam gauge for ? 

A. To drain the pipe in cold weather 
and let out condensed water. 

Q. How often would you do that ? 

A. Whenever it accumulated, about 
two or three times a day in winter. 

Q. What is the best, gauge-cocks or 
glass gauges, and what would you be gov- 
erned by ? 

A. Gauge-cocks, because glass gauges 
are liable to get stopped with mud, and 
not give a true level of the water, but they 
are a very handy thing ; they should be 
blown out 4 or 5 times a day, so as to keep 
them free from clogging up. 

Q. What would you do in case a glass 
should happen to break ? 

A. First close the water valve to pre- 
vent the escape of water, close the steam 
valve, insert a new glass, then turn on the 
steam valve first, then the water valve, 



36 

then close the pet-cock at the bottom and 
everything will be all right. 

Q. What is an Injector or Inspirator? 

A. They are a device to answer for a 
pnmp in feeding a boiler ; they draw, force 
and heat the water at the same time ? 

Q. If your gauge-cock or a small pipe 
in the large steam pipe should happen to 
get broken off, what would you do ? 

A. Make a hard wood plug and drive 
it in with a heavy hammer, then leave it 
so until it could be repaired, by cutting 
out the old piece, re tapping and putting in 
another pipe or gauge-cock, whichever the 
case might be. 

Q. If water should accumulate in the 
cylinder, what would be the consequence ? 

A. It is liable to crack the cylinder and 
disable the engine. 

Q. If you have charge of a engine in 
the country, and the cylinder head should 
happen to break,how would you remedy it ? 

A. If not broken too bad, try to patch 
it with pieces of iron or boards, and brace 
it from the wall with a piece of heavy 
piece of scantling, then try and run until 



37 

a new cylinder head could be made. 

Q. What size shonld a steam pipe and 
an exhaust pipe be ? 

A. The steam pipe should be X and 
the exhaust Vz the diameter of the cylinder. 

Q. If your crank pin or other journals 
get hot, what would you do ? . 

A. Try, while running, to get water on 
them, then oil them ; if that would not do, 
stop and slack up the key a little, then 
start up again. 

All engine cylinders should be well 
drained and heated before starting, then 
the engine should be started slowly, as the 
water that accumulates in the cylinder may 
injure the piston, cylinder or cylinder 
heads. Always leave the cylinder-cocks 
open when not running, and they should 
remain so until the engine is heated by the 
steam, after the ^ engine has been running 
at full speed 2 or 3 minutes. 

Q. If the cylinder had shoulders inside, 
and was out of a true circle, what would 
you do ? 

A. Bore it or have it bored out. 

Q. If your slide-valve was not steam 



38 

tight, what would you do ? 

A. Have the valve planed, then chip,^ 
file and scrape the seat to a full bearing. 

Q. If the crank and wrist pins are worn 
out of true, what would you do ? 

A. Calliper and file them, until they 
were round and true. 

Q What causes the wrist in the cross- 
head and crank-pin to wear the way they do? 

A. It is simply the motion they have ; 
the crank goes all the way around and 
the wrist only vibrates. 

Q. If the cross-head or crank-pin bras- 
ses were brass bound, what should be 
done ? 

A. They should be chipped and filed. 

Q. How do you know when you have 
taken enough off? 

A. By inside and outside callipers. 

Q. How does steam enter the cylinder? 

A. In common slide valve engines, it 
enters through one of the end ports and 
exhausts back through the same port, when 
the cavity of the valve has covered it and 
the exhaust port at the same time. 

Q. ^VTiat is a cavity ? 



39 

A. It is a hollow space in the valve it- 
self, where the exhaust passes through to 
the atmosphere. 

On Corliss' engines and other makes, 
there are other valves, called exhaust 
valves ; a Corliss' has two steam and two 
exhaust. 

Q. Where are they ? 

A. The two steam valves are on top at 
each end of the cylinder, and the exhausts 
are at the two bottom ends. 

Q. What are the advantages of com- 
mon slide valve engines over other makes? 

A. They are cheaper when first bought, 
more positive in their action, and simpler 
in their desis-ns. 

Q. What throw should a common slide 
valve engine eccentric have ? 

A. Generally double the width of the 
entry or steam ports. 

Q. What is meant by the lead of valve? 

A. The opening the valve has when the 
piston is at the beginning of its stroke. 

Q. What lead should large engines have? 

A. About tV inch. High speed engines 
must have a quick opening or good lead. 



THE ENGINE. 

Q. What is an engine composed of? 

A A bed plate, cylinder, connecting- 
rod, crank, crank-shaft, main pillow block, 
tail pillow block, cross-head, wrist-pin in 
cross-head, crank-pin, two cylinder-heads, 
piston-rod, piston-head,follower-head,bull- 
ring, packing rings, follower-bolts, con- 
necting rod brasses, pillow-block-brasses 
and gnides where the cross-head slides in 
so the piston is kept central with the cyl- 
inder. The main pillow-block brasses are 
generally made into four pieces, called top 
and bottom brasses and two quarter brass- 
es each side of shaft ; they are made into 
four parts so as to take up lost motion. 

Q. What keeps the rod from running 
off the crank-pin 'i 

A. The shoulders on crank-pin. 

Q. Why are the stub ends of straps 



41 

made heavier where gib and key passes 
through ? 

A. To make up for the amount of iron 
taken out for gib and key- way. 

Q. If the throttle valve broke, and you 
could not stop the engine with throttle, 
how would you stop it ? 

A. I would lift eccentric rod off of rock- 
er arm pin, and move valve by hand with 
a starting bar. until valve covers both ports 
equally, then the engine will come to a stop. 

Q. What is meant by a cushion in an 
engine cylinder? 

A. Cushion is the resistance on the op- 
posite side of piston-head, formed by the 
steam being shut up in the cylinder, as the 
piston is moving toward either dead centre. 

Q. What is meant by clearance ? 

A. Clearance is the space between the 
piston head, cylinder head and valve face 
at each end of the stroke. 

Q. How would you know the amount 
of clearance there was in that space ? 

A. By finding the number of cubic inch- * 
es in a bucket of water, then fill up the 
space level with the steam port, then see 



42 

how much water is left in the bucket, the 
diflference is the contents in cubic inches. 

Q. Why are gibs, keys and set screws 
used on both ends of connecting rod ? 

A. They are there to take up lost motion. 

Q. How would you do that ? 

A. By loosening up the set screw, and 
driving down the key, then tighten the set 
screw to keep the key from raising. 

Q. Is there more square inches in one 
end of the cylinder than in the other? 

A. In one sense of the word there are 
and in the other there are not, as the piston 
rod takes up some of the space in one end 
of the cylinder, therefor there is not the 
same area in one end as in the other. 

Q. What is a governor on an engine for? 

A. It is to regulate the steam that pass- 
es from the boiler to the steam chest, 
when the throttle is wide open. 

Q. How does it work ? 

A. It is regulated to allow the engine 
to run at a certain speed,the governor has a 
belt from the main shaft to a pulley on the 
governor, after the engine is running up to 
the speed it is intended to, it allows only 



43 

enoTigli steam to enter through the gover- 
nor valve to keep the same speed ; if the 
engine needs more power it begins to slack 
np, the governor balls drop and the valve 
opens and allows more steam to enter; 
consequently the engine must retain her 
speed, and if the load is taken off it will 
start to run away, and the governor balls 
will raise up, force the valve shut, and shut 
off the steam, consequently the engine must 
come back to its regular speed. 

Q. How does a governor valve look ? 

A. It is a round valve with grooves, 
some are made different from others, some 
have three or four openings, some have 
only two; the more openings the more 
sensitive the governor. 

Q. What is a lubricator for ? 

A. It is to saturate the steam that pass- 
es through the governor valve and the 
engine valve with oil, so they will not cut ; 
the piston packing rings and the cylinder 
is also oiled by the same steam and oil. 



LINING AN ENGINE. 

Q. How would you line up an engine ? 

A. By stripping the engine, take off 
both, cylinder heads if convenient, then 
take out the follower-head, piston-rings, 
bull-ring, disconnect the piston from cross- 
head, also disconnect the connecting-rod 
from the cross-head and crank-pin, then 
take a slotted stick and place it on one of 
the studs on the end of cylinder furthest 
from the crank, then draw a fine sea-grass 
line over the point of stick and through the 
centre of cylinder, and attach it to a stick 
at the other end of the bed-plate, nailed to 
the floor or clamped to the bed-plate, then 
take a thin stick, the length of it being a 
half inch less than half the diameter of 
cylinder, and stick a pin in each end of 
the stick, so they can be forced in or drawn 
out to suit the adjustment, then centre the 



45 

line at each end of the cylinder at the 
counter-bore from four sides. Never cen- 
tre the line in the stuffing box where the 
piston passes through, but use the inside 
counter-bore under all circumstances, 
whether you can remove the back cylin- 
der-head or not. Some engine cylinder 
heads and frame are one, consequently 
the head cannot and must not be moved. 

Q. If one counter-bore would be out, or 
larger than the other, what would you do, 
would it not throw the bore of the cylin- 
der or the line out ? 

A. No, centre it accordingly; but it 
would not make any difference, only two 
centering sticks with pins are needed to 
bring the line central with the bore. 

Q. Why do you use the counter-bore ? 

A, Because the counter-bore is the only 
true bore the cylinder has that is not worn, 
consequently all engineers must go by it. 

Q. What is a counter-bore for ? 

A. To keep the piston from wearing a 
shoulder in the cylinder at each end. 

Q. What is a counter-bore ? 

A. A counter-bore is each end of the 



46 

cylinder bored tV to H inches larger, from 
1 to 4 inches long according to size and 
length of cylinder. 

Q. Why is it that the piston does not 
wear a shoulder in the cylinder ? 

A. Because the piston rings just pass 
over the edge of the regular bore, and by 
so doing, no shoulder can be formed in the 
cylinder. 

Q. How is a cylinder bored ? 

A. They are generally bored on a reg- 
ular cylinder boring lathe, which has a 
table that can be raised or lowered to suit, 
The regular bore is first bored, then the 
counter-bore, then the two faces for the 
heads. 

Q. How do you square a shaft when 
you have got the line centrally through the 
cylinder ? ^ 

A. First find the centre between the two 
shoulders of the crank pin, and move the 
crank-pin down to the line and see how it 
comes, then move it over to the other dead 
centre and see how it comes, if equal, the 
shaft is square. 

Q. If you found it out of square K inch 



47 

what would you do :* A. Move tail block. 

Q. Why not move the head-block ? 

A. Because it would alter the length of 
the connecting-rod and liable to knock 
out a cylinder-head. 

Q. How would you level a shaft? 

A. A shaft is leveled by a spirit level, 
or a plumb bob line dropped past close to 
the line that comes through the cylinder 
directly in front of the centre of shaft, let 
it drop in a bucket of water to keep the 
plumb from swaying around, then try the 
crank-pin at both half strokes, top and bot- 
tom, and see how the crank pin feels the 
line, if equal the shaft is level. 

Q. If you found the shaft out of level, 
what would you do ? 

A. I would have to thin or thicken the 
brasses or babbitt the main pillow and tail 
block bearings whichever the case may be. 

Q. How would you know if the centre 
of the shaft is in line with line through 
the cylinder or not ? 

A. It can be found out by placing a 2 ft. 
steel square against the crank face so 
that the heel of the square is at the centre 



48 

of the shaft, and see how the square touch- 
es the line, if it touches exactly, the shaft 
is in line; if too hard, the shaft is too high; 
if not at all, the shaft is too low. 

Q. How would you raise your shaft ? 

A. There are various ways ; by liners, 
babbitt, heavier or lighter brasses. 

Q. If your crank face was oval , and you 
put a square against it, would that be right ? 

A. A spirit level could be placed on a 
square and bring it level, or drop a plumb- 
line, and put the end of the square against 
the crank- shaft centre and let it come 
against the plumb-line. This is a very true 
way. 

Q. Now, after your shaft is in line, 
square and level, and you still find it out 
over line X inch, what would you do ? 

A. I w^ould take it oJff of the crank-pin 
brasses and fill in the other side with a 
brass ring,or babbitt the side edge of brass- 
es, in some cases the side of the connect- 
ing rod has to be chipped to allow it to 
pass free of the crank face. 

Q. Why would you not take it off of 
the wrist-pin brasses in the cross-head ? 



49 

A. Because the rod would be out of the 
centre of cross-head, and it would have a 
tendency to bind the piston in the cylin- 
der and the cross-head on the guides, con- 
sequently cutting both. 

Q. Would it not make a difference on 
the other end of the rod ? 

A. 1^0, the closer the crank-face the 
better. 

Q. Now what do you do ? 

A. Level and line the guides by putt- 
ing them in their place ; and line them with 
a pair of callipers, by callipering them at 
both ends to get them in line, with the 
line through the cylinder, after having 
found the distance between the side of the 
cross-head and the centre of the cross-head 
where the piston enters the cross-head. 
Level by spirit level, first taking spirit 
level and trying it in the cylinder, if a new 
one, or on top of the cylinder where it has 
been planed off when first bored, for they 
are the only things to go by. 

Q. Would you use the valve seat ? 

A. No, but along side of it, where the 
steam chest sets on. 



50 

Q. If you had no spirit level, how would 
you do it ? ' 

A. With a plumb-line, by placing a 
square lengthwise on the guides and try 
them by bringing the square against the 
line. 

Q. Can a plumb-line hang out of true ? 

A. It cannot, providing, it hangs clear 
of everything ; if none of these were handy, 
a straight edge must be placed across the 
guides at one end, and see if the guides 
touch the straight edge equally both edges, 
then calliper the distance between the line 
and the straight-edge, also at the other 
end of the guides, if the same, the guides 
are level lengthwise with the cylinder and 
line; then level the guides crosswise with a 
plumb-line and square. 

Q. How would you measure your con- 
necting rod ? 

A. By finding the striking points. 

Q. How would you do that 'i 

A. By shoving the piston and cross- 
head up against the cylinder-head, and 
making a mark on the guides at one end of 
the cross-head, with a scriber and centre- 



— -51 

punch, then move the piston and cross- 
head back to the other cylinder-head and 
make another mark on the guide, at the 
same end of the cross-head ; then measure 
from the centre of crank-pin to centre of 
shaft, that gives the half stroke; double this, 
gives full stroke. If half stroke is 12 in., 
the full stroke is 24 in., then if the distance 
between the two striking points is 25 in. 
and the stroke 24 in., the clearance be- 
tween the cylinder-head and piston-head 
will be y^ in. when the piston is at either 
end of the cylinder. Then move the cross- 
head >2 in. back from the striking point, 
and bring the crank-pin toward the same 
dead centre, then take a tram and meas- 
ure from outside centre of crank-pin to the 
outside centre of wrist-pin in cross-head, 
which will give proper length of connecting- 
rod, also the right division of clearance. 

Q. What is meant by clearance in the 
cylinder ? 

A. It is the unoccupied space between 
the piston-head, cylinder-head and valve- 
face, when the crank is at the dead centre. 

Q. Does the amount of clearance effect 



52 

tlie engines economy ? A. Yes it does. 

Q. How much clearance should there 
be between the piston and cylinder-head ? 

A. It depents upon the size; some have 
from X to ^ inches. 

Q. What is formed in that space or 
clearance when running ? A. A cushion. 

Q. What is a cushion ? 

A. A cushion means the steam that en- 
ters the cylinder through the lead the valve 
has, and the resistance it makes on the 
piston-head, cylinder-head and valve-face, 
as the engine is reaching the dead centre. 

Q. What is a cushion for ? 

A. It is to catch the piston and weight 
of the machinery as it reaches the dead 
centre, and the lead is to give the engine 
power at the beginning of the stroke. 

Q. How does it act ? 

A. The same as a spring on the end of 
a hammer. 

Q. If you wanted to shorten or lengthen 
the connecting-rod, how could it be done? 

A. By placing tin or sheet-iron liners 
between the brasses and stub ends of the 
connecting-rod. 



53 — - 

Q. Now if the key had to be raised, 
how could that be done ? 

A. By putting liners between the straps 
and brasses. 

Q. Would that not alter the length of 
the rod? A. No. 

Q. With what instrument would you 
measure a connecting-rod ? 

A. It is called a ''tram." 

Q. How is an engine packed in the 
stuffing box ? 

A. Some engineers use hemp, others 
use black lead packing, and others use 
lead rings ; there are several different ways. 
Every engineer to his ow^n taste. 




YALYE MOTION. 

Q. What is an eccentric ? 

A. An eccentric is a subterfuge for a 
cranky it is something out of centre. 

Q. How would you find the throw or 
stroke of an eccentric ? 

A. By measuring the heavy and the 
light side, the difference between the two 
is the stroke or throw. 

Q. What is a cam ? 

A. A cam has no definite meaning, it 
has 1-2-3 or 4 motions, they are used on pop- 
pet valve engines, such as are in use on 
high pressure river boats. 

Q. How would you measure your valve 
and eccentric rods ? 

A. By placing the crank- pin at its dead 
centre, the centre of the eccentric straight 
or plumb above the centre of the shaft, the 
rocker-arm perpendicular, and the valve 



55 

covering both ports equally, then take a 
tram and measure from the centre of the 
eccentric to the centre of the pin where the 
eccentric rod hooks on (generally the low- 
er pin) for the eccentric-rod, and from the 
outside centre of the pin where the valve-rod 
is attached to the furthermost end of the 
valve, allowing for two nuts at each end of 
the valve, called adjusting and jamb nuts. 

An eccentric-rod consists of a strapjjoke, 
rod and two nuts ; when taking the meas- 
ure, couple the yoke and strap together, 
then put a /^ in. thick piece of wood be- 
tween the two straps and find the centre 
of the circle from four sides, with a pair of 
hermaphrodite callipers, then put the rod 
in the yoke and adjust it to the proper 
length by the two nuts, if that will not do, 
the rod must be shortened or lengthened, 
by cutting out or adding a piece, which- 
ever the case may be. Then take the 
measure with a tram from the centre of 
straps to the centre of the rod where the 
rod hooks on the lower rocker-arm pin. 

Q. How long is the thread on a valve- 
rod ? 



56 

A. Long enough to allow two nuts at 
each end of the valve, and some «pace for 
adjustment. 

Q. Now if your rocker-arm stood at a 
quarter, and your eccentric out of plumb, 
how would you take the measure for the 
rods ? 

A. Simply bring them plumb and take 
the measure, that is the only right way. 

Q. After you have measured your rods 
what would you do ? 

A. They should be put on, and the 
valve set ? 

Q. What do you move or do first, to 
set a valve ? 

A. Move the eccentric in the direction 
the engine is to run, until the valve begins 
to take steam or lead, then tighten the ec- 
centric temporally with set screws, then 
move the crank over to the other dead 
centre, and see how much lead it has, if 
equal, the valve is set. 

Q. Now if you find it out H of an inch 
on one end, and the proper lead on the 
other, what would you do ? 

A. Divide the diff^erence, by moving the 



57 

valve one-half it is out, by adjusting the 
nuts on the valve gear, which vrill make 
A of an inch, then move the eccentric to 
get the lead again, then move the crank on 
the other dead centre, and the valve vrill 
in all probabilities be set. 

Q. But if it does not, what then ? 

A. Go through the same performance 
until it is set. Some valve-rods have a 
yoke that slips over the valve, while the 
adjusting and jam-nuts are between the 
stuffing box and the rocker-arm pin. When 
a valve-rod has no nuts, the adjusting 
must be done at the eccentric-rod, or raise 
or lower the eccentic-rod pin in the slott, 
at the bottom of the rocker- arm. 

Q. Now after you have set your valve, 
keyed everything up properly, and there 
was a thud or dead sound in the engine or 
cylinder, what would you do, or where 
would you look for the trouble ^ 

A. In the exhaust being choked. The 
steam-chest cover must be taken off, then 
uncouple the valve, turn the valve up side- 
ways and move it until the steam edge has 
the proper lead with the steam-port, then 



58 

a square must be placed on the valve-seat 
of the cylinder, and against the valve-face 
to see how the exhaust lead on the oppo- 
site steam port corresponds; if it is choked, 
then scribe it by allowing a little over 
double the steam lead. 

Q. How would you make the exhaust 
larger ? 

A. By chipping it out of the exhaust 
cavity in the valve, and rub a file over it 
to smooth it. 

Q. Do you think a little over double 
the steam-lead would be sufiicient ? 

A. Yes, if not, take out a little more. 

Q. Where should that exhaust be ? 

A. It should be the furthest from the 
steam-port, that is receiving. 

Q. How would you find the dead centre 
of an engine ? 

A. By placing a spirit level on the strap 
that goes around the brasses, that connect 
the crank-pin to the connecting-rod, and 
when it is level, the crank is at dead centre. 

Q. What would you do in case your 
eccentric slipped ? 

A. Set the valve the same as before. 



59 

Q. Is the principal of valve setting the 



same 



% 



A. Yes, some engines have two steam 
and two exhaust valves, but that makes 
no difference. 

Q. What other way could you find the 
dead centre of an engine ? 

A. By moving the engine toward the 
dead centre, until the cross-head stopped 
moving, then put a centre punch mark in 
the floor, and one on the fly-wheel, after 
having marked it with a tram, then move 
the crank over the centre, until the cross- 
head begins to move, then put another 
mark in the middle, between the two marks 
this is the exact dead centre ; then bring the 
middle mark to the point of the tram; this 
is done with a small tram, with one straight 
point and an L. 

Q. If the engine had to be run in rhe 
opposite direction to which it had been 
running how could it be done ? 

A. It could be done by placing the 
crank-pin on the dead centre, removing the 
steam-chest cover, and turning the eccen- 
tric around on the shaft in the opposite 



60 — - 

direction, until the valve has the proper 
lead, then try the engine from the dead 
centre to dead centre, to equalize the lead 
at both ends of the valve, then the engine 
will run in the opposite direction. 

Q. Does a crank-pin and piston travel 
the same ? 

A. No, a crank-pin travels six times as 
far, v^hile tha piston is moving the first 
inch of its stroke, ^s while it (piston) 
makes the middle inch; a, little over twice 
as far, while the piston travels the second 
inch; a little more than one and one-half 
times as far, while the piston is making 
the third inch ; and less than one and one- 
half times as far, while the piston is mak- 
ing its 4th inch. The crank travels less 
when the piston is making the last inch of 
the stroke than it does when making the 
first inch. Another fact not generally 
recognized by inexperienced men, is that 
a crank of an engine at certain points 
travels a long wa}^ while the cross-head 
has a motion that is hardly noticed. 

When the centre of the crank-shaft and 
crank-pin are in line with the piston-rod, 



61 

no pressure applied to either side of the 
piston, can set the engine in motion; this 
is called the dead centre. 

Q. If you were asked the horse power 
of any sized engine could you tell it ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Well, how would you go about it, 
and what is a horse power ? 

A. A horse power is 33,000 lbs. raised 
1 ft. high in 1 minute, or 150 lbs. raised 
220 ft. high in 1 minute. To find the horse 
power of any engine, first find the area of 
the piston-head, then multiply the answer 
by the average pounds pressure per square 
inch, then multiply by the number of feet 
traveled in 1 minute, and divide by 33,000. 
If you calculate from boiler pressure, you 
must allow about .13 per cent for loss by 
friction ; but if you take pressure off* of the 
indicator card, you need not take off* .13 
per cent, as the indicator will indicate 
average pressure per square inch on the 
diagram. 



THE INDIGATOP^. 

The steam engine indicator, is an instru- 
ment for showing the pressure of steam in 
the cylinder, at all points of the stroke, or 
for producing actual diagrams. The in- 
dicator consists of a small cylinder accu- 
rately bored out, and fitted with a piston, 
capable of working in the (indicator) cylin- 
der with little or no friction, and yet be 
practically steam-tight. The piston has 
an area of just ^ of a square inch, and its 
motion in the cylinder is It of an inch. 

The piston-rod is connected to a pair of 
light levers, so linked together, that a- 
pencil carried at the centre of the link, 
moves in nearly a straight line through 
a maximum distance of 3>^ inches. A spi- 
ral spring placed in the cylinder above the 
piston, and of a strength proportioned to 
the steam pressure, resists the motion of 
the piston ; and the elasticity of this spring 
is such, that each pound of pressure on 



63 

the piston, causes the pencil to move a 
certain fractional part of an inch. The 
pencil in this case is made of a piece of 
pointed brass wire, which retains its sharp- 
ness for a considerable time, and yet makes 
a well defined line upon the prepared pa- 
per generally used with the indicator. 

The paper is wound around the drum, 
which has a diameter of 2 inches, and is 
capable of a semi-rotary motion upon its 
axis to such an extent, that the extreme 
length of diagram may be 5X inches. Mo- 
tion is given to the drum in one direction, 
during the forward stroke of the engine, 
by means of a cord, connected indirectly 
to the cross-head of the engine, and the 
drum is brought back again during the re- 
turn stroke of the engine, by the action of 
a coiled spring at its base. 

The conical stem of the instrument, per- 
mits it to be turned around and fixed in 
any desired position, and the guide-pulleys 
attached to the instrument under the pa- 
per drum, may also be moved around so 
as to bring the cord upon the drum-pulley 
from any convenient direction. 



64 , 

The upper side of the piston is open to 1 
the atmosphere, the lower side may, by ^ 
means of a stop-cock, be put into comuni- ; 
cation either with the atmosphere or with < 
the engine cylinder. \ 

When both sides of the piston are 
pressed upon by the atmosphere, the pen- ~] 
cil, on being brought into contact with the 
moving paper, describes the atmospheric 
line. When the lower side of the piston 
is in communication with the engine cylin- 
der, the position of the pencil, is determ- 
ined by the pressure of the steam exist- 
ing in the cylinder; and on the pencil 
being pressed against the paper, during a 
complete double stroke of the engine, the 
entire indicator diagram is described. 

In order that the diagram shall be cor- 
rect, the motion of the drum and paper 
shall coincide exactly with that of the en- 
gine piston ; second, that the position of 
the pencil shall precisely indicate the 
pressure of steam in the cylinder; third 
that the pendulum must be from 1/^ to 3 
times as long as the stroke of the engine 
piston ; fourth, that the pendulum must be 



65 

plumb, when the piston is at half stroke; 
fifth, that the cord around the drum must 
be attached to the pendalum at right angles 
or square with the indicator ; sixth, the 
pendulum must be attached with and inch 
wooden pin to the ceiling or floor at one 
end, the other end to the cross-head by 
means of a screw-bolt and a slot in the 
pendulum; seventh, that the two holes 
tapped in the cylinder, are directly oppo- 
site the steam ports, a.nd centrally between 
the piston-head and cylinder-head, when 
the engine is at the dead centre, or in other 
words, in the centre of clearance ; eighth, 
that the piping should be as short as poss- 
ible, and /^ inch pipe if not over 1 ft. long. 
If longer the pipe should be larger, close 
to the cylinder and covered, so as not to 
allow too much condensation, as it effects 
the diagram. The best way to take a dia- 
gram, is to tap a hole in each cylinder-head 
and take each end separately. The cord 
must be attached to the pendulum, so the 
paper drum will move in proportion to the 
piston. 



• 66 

An indicator shows the highest and the ■ 

lowest pressure reached, also the cut-off • 

and lead. If there is a great difference, 5 

say more than 5 lbs. between the boiler j 

pressure and the initial pressure upon the i 

piston, the connecting pipes may be taken . 

as being too small, too abrupt or the steam ; 

ports too contracted. The full pressure of i 

steam should come upon the piston at the \ 

very beginning of its stroke. Should the \ 

admission corner be rounded, the valve is | 

. wanting in ''lead," or in other words, the 1 

port for the admission of steam is uncov- \ 

ered too late in the stroke. \ 

The steam line should be parallel or ] 

straight with the atmospheric line, up to ^ 

the point of cut-oflF, or nearly so. Should ' 

it (the steam line) fall as the piston adyan- ^ 

ces, the opening for the admission of steam ^ 

is insufficient,and the steam is'^wiredrawn." ; 

The point of cut-off should be sharp and ; 

well defined; should it be otherwise, the ' 

valve does not close quick enough. The I 

bevel line leading from the cut-offline to ^ 

the end of the stroke, is called the expan- ; 

sion line; ^ 



, i 



67 

Q. What is the standard indicator ? 
A. The Thompson improved. 
Q. Are there any other makes ? 
A. Yes, Richard's, McNought's, Tabor's 
and others. 



Q. If you had no 2 ft. square and could 
not get any, how would you lay one off? 

A. Take a pair of dividers and draw a 
circle, then find four points on the circle, 
and scribe lines from point to point, which 
will give you a square. This should be 
done very acurately. 

How to mark engineer s tools. AYarm 
the tool and allow a thin coat of beeswax 
to cover the place to be marked ; after the 
beeswax is cold, take a dull scriber and do 
the marking ; then apply some nitric acid, 
after a few moments wash oft' the acid with 
water, then heat the tool to melt the bees 
wax. 



How to reduce decinials to fractioi^al parts of ai^ ii^ct 



iV 0625 

i 125 

tV 1875 



.3125 



.375 

.4375 

.5 

.5625 

.625 



ii_ 

1.6 * • • • 

if ... . 


. . . .6875 
... .75 
. .8125 




. . . .875 


III 

1 tj • • • • 


... .9375 



r^ULBS. 



Here are several rules that should be 
continually in an engineer's mind. 

RULE for telling the power of a diagram. 
Set down the length of the spaces formed 
by the vertical lines from the base in 
measurements of a scale, accompanying 
the indicator, and on which a tenth of an 
inch usually represents a pound of press- 
ure, add up the total length of all the 
spaces, which will give the main length 
or the mean pressure upon the piston in 
lbs. per square inch ; to do this, lay a card 
taken by the indicator off in ten parts, by 
drawing lines from top to bottom. Find 
out what the scale is, suppose it is 60, the 
number of ordinates 10 and that the sum 
of their length is 6 inches, so 6 and 10 or- 
dinates = A or .6 X 60 = 36.0 Answer 36 
lbs. pressure upon the piston. 



69 

RULE for finding and deducting friction. 
Multiply N. H. P. by .13 and subtract the 
answer from N. H. P., wMch gives I. H. P. 

Q. What is N.JH. P. ? 

A. It is nominal horse power. 

Q. What is I. H. P. ? 

A. It is indicated horse power. 

Q. What is a revolution ? 

A. It means the crank has turned once 
around. 

Q. How many strokes has a revolution? 

A. Two. 

EXAMPLE :— If an engine has 24 inch 
stroke, and makes 65 revolutions per min- 
ute, how many feet does it travel in a 
minute ? 24 in. x 2 = 48 in. x 65 rev. = 
3120 in. 4= 12 =260 ft. per minute. 

Q. What is njeant by cutting off steam 
at 6 inches ? 

A. It means, that the valve closes and 
cuts off the live steam from the boiler at 6 
inches of the piston's travel, then the en- 
gine gets its power from the time the valve 
closes or cuts off, until the exhaust opens 
by the expansion of the steam closed up 
in the cylinder. 



70 

EXAMPLE : 
Cylinder 12 x 24 in. 12 diam. of cylinder, 

65 Revolution, 12 

Average Pressure 80 lbs. 144 sq. inch, in cylinder. 

.7854 
113.0976 area of piston head face. 
80 average pressure. 
9047.8080 

260 No. of ft. trav, by piston 



33000 )2352430.0800 

71.2857 Horse Power. 

RULE for finding area of any diameter, j 
Always multiply the diameter by itself, ] 
then by .7854, then cut off four decimals to ] 
the right. i 

RULE for finding the circumference of ■ 
anything round. Multiply diameter by 
3.1416 and cut off 4 decimals. 

RULE. From 'A to H square foot grate • 
surface is allowed to a horse power of a ] 
boiler- ^ 

RULE to find how much water a boiler : 
will contain. For 2 flue boiler % full of ' 
water ; find % area of the boiler in inch- J 
es inside ; multiply by length in inches ; 
then find area of fines, thickness of iron 
added ; then multiply by 2, if two fines ; 
multiply by length in inches, subtract area 



^ 



71 

of flues from % contents, and divide by 
231 (number of cubic inches in standard 
gallon) the answer will be the number of 
U. S. standard gallons. 

EXAMPLE : 



Boiler 48 in. 


48 


Two Flues 16 in. each. 


48 


Length 20 ft. 


2304 


16 


.7854 


16 


3)1809.5616 Area of Boiler. 


256 


603.1872 One-third of Area. 


.7854 


2 


201.0624 


1206.3744 Two-thirds '* 


2 


240 Length in inches. 


402.1248 


289529.8560 


240 


96509.9520 Sub. Area of Flues. 


96509,9520 


231)193019.9040 



835.5840 No. of Gallons. 

RULE to find the pressure on the crown 
sheet of a hanging fire box boiler. Multi- 
ply the width by the length in inches, then 
multiply by steam gauge pressure and di- 
vide by 2. EXAMPLE : 
Crown Sheet 46 x 33 in. 46 
Pressure 85 lbs. 33 
Iron ^ in. 1518 

85 



iron is ^ in. div. by 4. 


2)129030 


'' ^ in. div. by 2.66 


2000)64515 lbs. pressure. 




32.2 5i Tons " 



72 

RULE to find quantity of water for a 
boiler for each horse power per minute. 
Add atmosphesic pressure to strain press- 
ure ; then divide by 18, multiply answer 
by .24, and that will give U. S. standard 
gallons per minute. 

EXAMPLE: 

One cubic foot of water 80 lbs. pressure, 

is generally allowed for 15 

one horse power. 18)95 

~~5 

.2i 

1.20=1 1 Gallons. 

RULE to find the amount of water re- 
quired, when the average pounds of coal 
used per hour is known. Divide the coal 
by 7.5 the answer will be cubic feet, then 
multiply by 7.5 and that gives the number 
of U. S. standard gallons. 

EXAMPLE : 

117 lbs. of Coal used per hour, 7.5)117.0 

15 



112.5=112^ Galls. 

Q. How many cubic feet in 1 lb. of air? 
A. 13.817 cubic feet. 
Q. How much air does it take to con- 
sume 1 lb. of coal. 



73 

A. It takes 18 lbs or 240 cubic feet. 

Q. How would you tell the amount of 
water any tank contained ? 

A. If the tank was large at the bottom 
and narrow at the top, lay the tank off in 
10 parts from top to bottom, then take the 
diameter ro from the large end of tank, 
square it, then multiply by .7854 that gives 
the area, then multiply quotient by full 
depth of tank and divide by 1728 which 
gives the number of cubic feet, multiply 
answer by 7.5 and the number of U. S. 
gallons will be given. The example must 
be done in inches, 1728 is the number of 
inches in a cubic foot, and 7.5 is the num- 
ber of gallons in a cubic foot. 

EXAMPLE : 

Tank 2 ft. diam. 24 diai^i. 

" 3 ft. deep, 24 •' 

576 

.7854 



452.3904 area, 

36 in. depth. 



1728)16286.0544 



9.4248 cubic ft. 

7.5 No. Galls, of cub. ft. 



70.68600 U, S. Galls, in tank. 



74 

RULE for chimneys. Chimneys should 
"be round inside, instead of square, to in- 
sure a good draft. The opening should be 
one-fifth larger than the area of the flues 
or tubes combined ; if less, the draft will 
not be free. The opening from the bottom 
should increase in size to the top, and be 
as smooth as possible inside. 

RULE for making good Babbitt metal, 
for high and low speed, in parts. 



HIGH SPEED. 


COMMON. 


MEDIUM. 


10 

16 

4 

70 


MartinsNickle 

Copper 

Antimony . . . , 
Tin 


1 12 

4 

84 


Copper 

Antimony 

Tin 


60 
25 
15 


Copper 

Antimony .... 
Tin 






100 


100 




100 





RULE for babbitting a box. JS'early 
every engineer hashis own way ; but the 
best and quickest way, is to chip out all 
the old babbitt in the cap and box, then 
put the journal or shaft tjiat is to run in 
the box, in its place; put enough liners in 
between the shaft or journal and edge of 
box until level, square and in line ; put 
thick putty around the shaft and against 
the box. so the babbitt cannot run out ; 



75- 

then heat the babbitt until it runs free, 
and pour accordingly ; the cap is then 
bolted in its place upon iV in. thick liner, 
and putty placed as before, then pour the 
metal through the oil holes, which will 
have to be drilled out afterwards. 

RULE for finding size of pulleys for the 
governor. For diameter of governor pull- 
ey, multiply the number of revolutions of 
engine by diameter of engine shaft pulley 
and divide by revolutions of governor. 

RULE to find the diameter of engine 
shaft pulle}^, multiply the revolutions of 
governor by diameter of governor pulley, 
and divide by revolutions of the engine. 

RULE to determine the capacity of any 
size pump, single or double action. Mul- 
tiply the area of the water piston-head 
face or plunger in inches, by its stroke in 
inches, which gives the number of cubic 
inches per single stroke ; the answer divi- 
ded by 231 (the cubic inches in a gallon) 
will give the number of standard gallons 
per single stroke. But remember, all 
pumps throw less water than their capaci- 
ty, which depends upon the condition and 



^76 

quality of the pump. This loss arises 
from the rise and fall of the valves ; from a 
bad fit or leakage ; and in some cases from 
their being too much space between the 
valves, piston or plunger. The higher the 
valves have to rise to give the proper open- 
ing, the less work the pump will perform. 

Q. Will a boiler 60 in. diam. Vs in. iron, 
stand as much pressure as a boiler 48 in- 
diam. H in. iron ? A. No. 

Q. Why? A. Because the pressure 
in the large boiler has more surface, and 
will not allow it. It is the same as a long 
bar and a short bar of the same thickness, 
it takes less strain to break the long one 
than the short one. 

RULE for finding safe working pressure 
of steam boilers. Always use .56 for sing- 
le riveted and .70 for double riveted. A 
radius means one-half the diameter ; and 
one-fifth of tensile strength is the safe 
load. U. S. standard is one-sixth. 

Multiply the thickness of iron by single 
or double rivets, then multiply by the safe 
load, divide by internal radius and the 
answer will be the safe working pressure. 



- — 77 

EXAMPLE: 

Diameter 42 in. .1875 thickness of iron, 

Iron /g- in. .70 double riveted, 

Double rivetted and .131250 
50,000 lbs. tensile streng th. 10000 2 )42 

20.8125)13125000.00 2r outside radius. 

Safe working pressure. 63.06 .1875 

5 20.8125 inside rad. 



Bursting Pressure. 315.30 

RULE to find aggregate strain caused 
by the pressure of steam on the shells of 
boilers. Multiply the circumference in 
inches by the length in inches ; multiply 
this answer by the pressure in pounds. 
The result will be the pressure on the shell 
of boiler, and divide by 2000 which gives 
the tons. Example : — Diam. of boiler 48 
in., circumference 150.7968, length 20 ft. or 
240 in., pressure of steam 120 lbs. 

150.7968 X 240 x 120 = 4342947.8400 lbs. 
= 2000 = 2171;^ tons strain. 

RULE to find the number of feet of 1 in, 
pipe required to heat any size room with 
steam. For direct radiation 1 lineal foot 
(straight foot) to 25 cubic feet of space. 
For indirect radiation, 1 lineal foot to 15 
cubic feet of space. Note all pipe is meas- 
ured inside for size. 



78 

EXAMPLE : 

Room 18 X 18 X 18 to be heated with 1 inch Pipe. 

Direct Radiation. All calculating must be done in inches, 

and divided by 1728 to give the" cubic feet. 

216 

21 6 

46656 

216 

172 8)10077696 cubic inches. 

25)5832 cubic feet: 
Lineal 2383,^5 ft. of 1 inch pipe. 

One cubic foot of boiler is required, for 
every 1500 cubic feet of space to be 
warmed. One horse power of boiler is 
enough for 40000 cubic feet of space. 

RULE to find the horse power of a boil- 
er. Always find the number of square 
inches and divide by 144, which gives the 
square feet of heating surface, and divide 
by 15 sq. ft. which is allowed for one horse 
power of a boiler ; divide the H. P. by 2, 
you will have the proper grate surface, and 
allow ^ sq. in. of safety valve to 1 sq. ft. 
of grate surface. 



79 

EXAMPLE: 

Boiler 48 in. x 25 ft. First find the circumference of boiler. 
Two 16 in. Plues. 16 diam. of 1 flue. 

48 diam. of shell. 3.1416 

3.1416 ""502656 circ. of 1 flue. 

3 )150.7968 300 length of flue in 

50.2652 }i circumference. 15079.6800 inches. 

2 2 

100.5304 ^ " 30159.3600 heat. surf. 2 flues 

300 length of boiler in inches. 
30159.1200 No. sq. ft. heat. surf. 16 diam. of 1 flue, 
in the shell. 16 

48 ~256 

48 .7854 

2304 201.0624 area of 1 flue. 

.7854 2 

3)1809.5616 area of 1 head. 402.1248 area of 2 flues. 

603.1872 yi area of 1 hd. 2 

2 ' 804.2496 both ends. 

1206.3744 % area of 1 hd. 

2 
2412.7488 J^ area of both heads. 
No. square feet of heating surface in the shell, 30159.1200 

'' flues, 30159.3600 

Two-third area of both heads. 2412.7488 

Total, 62731.2288 

Subtract area of flues, 804.2496 

144)61926:9792 
15)430. 

Horse Power, 2 )28. 

Grate Surface, 2)14. 

Area of Safety Valve. 7. 



80 

RULE to find the horse power generated 
in any kind of boiler when running. First, 
notice how long it will take to evaporate 
one inch of water in the glass-gauge, di- 
vide this into 60, which gives the number 
of inches evaporated in one hour ; second, 
multiply the average diameter where evap- 
oration took place, by the length of the 
boiler in inches, this multiplied by the 
number of inches evaporated, and the an- 
swer divided by 1728 gives the cubic feet 
of water evaporated in one hour. 

As a rule one cubie foot of water evapo- 
rated, is generally allowed for one horse 
power ; also the capacity of a pump or in- 
jector for any boiler should deliver 1 cubic 
foot of water each horse power per hour. 

EXAMPLE: 

Length of Boiler 216 in. 216 

Average Diam. 40 ** 40 

One inch evaporated in 15)60 8640- 

15 minutes, 4 4 

1728)34560 

20 horse power, 

RULE to find the surface of a sphere, 
globe or ball. 

EXAMPLE:— 9 in. diam. x 3.1416=28.2744 x 9=254.4696 
X 9=2290.2264=6=381.2/ sohd contents. 



81^ 

RULE to find tlie solid contents of a 
sphere. Multiply cube of the diameter by 
.5236, the answer equals its solid contents. 

Example : — Sphere 3 in. diam. 3 x 3=9 
9 X 3=27 X .5236=14.1372 solid contents. 

RULE for safety valves.* To find the 
distance P. should be placed on levei\when 
the weight is known, or the distance is 
known and weight is not known. Multi- 
ply the pressure required by area of valve? 
multiply the answer by the fulcrum ; sub 
tract the weight of the lever, valve and 
stem, and divide by the ^veight of P. for 
distance, or divide by distance for the 
weight of P. witli same example as above. 

EXAMPLE : 

Weight of P. 60 lbs. 100 lbs. pressure. 

Pressiue, 100 " 3 area of valve. 

Wt. of L.V. & Stem, 30 " ~300 
Fulcrum, 4 inch. 4 fulcrum. 

Area of Valve, 3 " 1200 

30 wt. of L. V. & Stem. 

N. B.) P. means the weight 60)1170 

on the end of lever. 19^ in. P. should be hung 

on lever. 

The mean effectiveweight of valve, lever 
and stem is found by connecting the lever 
at fulcrum, tie the valve-stem to lever with 



82 

a stjing, attach a spring scale to lever im- 
mediately over valve, and raise until the 
valve is clear of its seat, which will give 
the mean effective weight. 

RULE for figuring the safety valve, when 
the area of valve, the weight of lever and 
valve are known, the distance fulcrum is 
from valve, and weight of P. is known. 

EXAMPLE : 

Weight of P. 50 lbs. 2.25 4)20 

Wt. of L.V. & Stem, 30 " 2.25 "5" 

Fulcrum 4 in. 5.0625 50 

Diam. of Valve, 2% " .7854 250 

Length of Lever, 20 " 3.97608750 area. 30 

Add as many cyphers to the divi- 3.9)280.0 

dend as there is decimals in the di- lbs. press. 71.|^ 
visor, and divide as v^hole numbers. 

To measure or mark off the lever, you 
measure the fulcrum and make marks the 
same distance as fulcrum ; if fulcrum is 4 
inches, each space must be 4 inches apart. 

Q. What is meant by a fulcrum ? 

A. The distance valve stem is from 
where the lever is connected. 

THE END. 



83 

.^CONTENTS.sV- 

Page. 
Preface, 3 

The Boiler in general, 5 

Pumps, 25 

The Engine, 40 

How to Line an Engine, 44 

Valve Motion, 54 

The Indicator, 62 

General Information, 35- 67 

To Figure a Diagram, 68 

For finding Friction, 69 

For finding Horse Power of Engine with Example,. . .61-70 

For finding Contents of Boiler, 70 

For finding Pressure on Crown Sheet, 71 

For finding quantity of Water and Coal used per H. P. ..72 

For finding Contents of a Tank, 73 

For Chimneys and Babbitting Boxes, 74-75 

To determine Capacity of Pump, 75 

For Safe Working Pressure of Boiler, 76 

For Heating Buildings, 77-78 

For finding the Horse Power of Boiler, 78-79-80 

For finding Surface and Solid Contents of a Sphere, . . 80-81 

For Safety Valves^ 81-82 

Multiplication Table, 84 



-84- 



MULTIPLICATION TABLE. 



1 


X 


1 


— 


1 


2 


X 


1 — 


2 


3 


X 


1 





3 


1 


X 


2 


— 


2 


2 


X 


2 


4 


3 


X 


2 


— 


6 


1 


X 


3 


— 


3 


2 


X 


3 — 


6 


3 


X 


3 


— 


9 


1 


X 


4 


— 


4 


2 


X 


4 — 


8 


3 


X 


4 


— 


12 


1 


X 


5 


— 


5 


2 


X 


5 — 


10 


3 


X 


5 


— 


15 


1 


X 


6 


— 


6 


2 


X 


6 — 


12 


3 


X 


6 


— 


18 


1 


X 


7 


— 


7 


2 


X 


7 — 


14 


3 


X 


7 


— . 


21 


1 


X 


8 


— 


8 


2 


X 


8 — 


16 


3 


X 


8 


— - 


24 


1 


X 


9 


-• 


9 


2 


X 


9 — 


18 


3 


X 


9 


— 


27 


4 


X 


1 


— 


4 


5 


X 


1 — 


5 


6 


X 


1 


— 


6 


4 


X 


2 


— 


8 


5 


X 


2 — 


10 


6 


X 


2 


— 


12 


4 


X 


3 


— 


12 


5 


X 


3 — 


15 


6 


X 


3 


— 


18 


4 


X 


4 


— 


16 


5 


X 


4 — 


20 


6 


X 


4 


— 


24 


4 


X 





— 


20 


5 


X 


5 — 


25 


6 


X 


5 


— 


30 


4 


X 


6 


— 


24 


5 


X 


6 — 


30 


6 


X 


6 


— 


36 


4 


X 


7 


— 


28 


5 


X 


7 — 


35 


6 


X 


7 


— 


42 


4 


X 


8 


— 


32 


5 


X 


8 — 


40 


6 


X 


8 


— 


48 


4 


X 


9 


— 


36 


' 


X 


9 — 


45 


6 


X 


9 


— 


54 


7 


X 


1 


— 


7. 


8 


X 


1 — 


8 


9 


X 


1 


— 


9 


7 


X 


2 


— 


14 


8 


X 


2 


16 


9 


X 


2 


— 


18 


7 


X 


3 


— 


21 


8 


X 


3 — 


24 


9 


X 


3 


— 


27 


7 


X 


4 


— 


28 


8 


X 


4 — 


32 


9 


X 


4 


— 


36 


7 


X 


5 


— 


35 


8 


X 


5 — 


40 


9 


X 


5 


— 


45 


7 


X 


6 


— 


42 


8 


X 


6 — 


48 


9 


X 


6 


— 


54 


7 


X 


7 


— 


49 


8 


X 


7 — 


56 


9 


X 


■7 


— 


63 


7 


X 


8 


— 


56 


8 


X 


8 — 


64 


9 


X 


8 


— 


72 


7 


X 


9 


— 


63 


8 


X 


9 — 


72 


9 


X 


9 


— 


81 



